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DC-26 - Remote Sensing Platforms

Remote sensing means acquiring and measuring information about an object or phenomenon via a device that is not in physical or direct contact with what is being studied (Colwell, 1983).To collect remotely sensed data, a platform – an instrument that carries a remote sensing sensor – is deployed. From the mid 1800’s to the early 1900’s, various platforms such as balloons, kites, and pigeons carried mounted cameras to collect visual data of the world below. Today, aircraft (both manned and unmanned) and satellites collect the majority of remotely sensed data. The sensors typically deployed on these platforms include film and digital cameras, light-detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems, and multi-spectral and hyper-spectral scanners. Many of these instruments can be mounted on land-based platforms, such as vans, trucks, tractors, and tanks. In this chapter, we will explore the different types of platforms and their resulting remote sensing applications.

CV-18 - Representing Uncertainty

Using geospatial data involves numerous uncertainties stemming from various sources such as inaccurate or erroneous measurements, inherent ambiguity of the described phenomena, or subjectivity of human interpretation. If the uncertain nature of the data is not represented, ill-informed interpretations and decisions can be the consequence. Accordingly, there has been significant research activity describing and visualizing uncertainty in data rather than ignoring it. Multiple typologies have been proposed to identify and quantify relevant types of uncertainty and a multitude of techniques to visualize uncertainty have been developed. However, the use of such techniques in practice is still rare because standardized methods and guidelines are few and largely untested. This contribution provides an introduction to the conceptualization and representation of uncertainty in geospatial data, focusing on strategies for the selection of suitable representation and visualization techniques.

FC-21 - Resolution

Resolution in the spatial domain refers to the size of the smallest measurement unit observed or recorded for an object, such as pixels in a remote sensing image or line segments used to record a curve. Resolution, also called the measurement scale, is considered one of the four major dimensions of scale, along with the operational scale, observational scale, and cartographic scale. Like the broader concept of scale, resolution is a fundamental consideration in GIScience because it affects the reliability of a study and contributes to the uncertainties of the findings and conclusions. While resolution effects may never be eliminated, techniques such as fractals could be used to reveal the multi-resolution property of a phenomenon and help guide the selection of resolution level for a study.

AM-68 - Rule Learning for Spatial Data Mining

Recent research has identified rule learning as a promising technique for geographic pattern mining and knowledge discovery to make sense of the big spatial data avalanche (Koperski & Han, 1995; Shekhar et al., 2003). Rules conveying associative implications regarding locations, as well as semantic and spatial characteristics of analyzed spatial features, are especially of interest. This overview considers fundamentals and recent advancements in two approaches applied on spatial data: spatial association rule learning and co-location rule learning.

DC-06 - Sample size selection
  • Determine the minimum number and distribution of point samples for a given study area and a
  • Determine minimum homogeneous ground area for a particular application
  • Describe how spatial autocorrelation influences selection of sample size and sample statistics
  • Assess the practicality of statistically reliable sampling in a given situation
  • given statistical test of thematic accuracy
CV-04 - Scale and Generalization

Scale and generalization are two fundamental, related concepts in geospatial data. Scale has multiple meanings depending on context, both within geographic information science and in other disciplines. Typically it refers to relative proportions between objects in the real world and their representations. Generalization is the act of modifying detail, usually reducing it, in geospatial data. It is often driven by a need to represent data at coarsened resolution, being typically a consequence of reducing representation scale. Multiple computations and graphical modication processes can be used to achieve generalization, each introducing increased abstraction to the data, its symbolization, or both.

FC-32 - Semantic Information Elicitation

The past few decades have been characterized by an exponential growth of digital information resources. A considerable amount of this information is semi-structured, such as XML files and metadata records and unstructured, such as scientific reports, news articles, and historical archives. These resources include a wealth of latent knowledge in a form mainly intended for human use. Semantic information elicitation refers to a set of related processes: semantic information extraction, linking, and annotation that aim to make this knowledge explicit to help computer systems make sense of the content and support ontology construction, information organization, and knowledge discovery.

In the context of GIScience research, semantic information extraction aims at processing unstructured and semi-structured resources and identifying specific types of information: places, events, topics, geospatial concepts, and relations. These may be further linked to ontologies and knowledge bases to enrich the original unstructured content with well-defined meaning, provide access to information not explicit in the original sources, and support semantic annotation and search. Semantic analysis and visualization techniques are further employed to explore aspects latent in these sources such as the historical evolution of cities, the progression of phenomena and events and people’s perception of places and landscapes.

AM-28 - Semi-variogram modeling
  • List the possible sources of error in a selected and fitted model of an experimental semi-variogram
  • Describe the conditions under which each of the commonly used semi-variograms models would be most appropriate
  • Explain the necessity of defining a semi-variogram model for geographic data
  • Apply the method of weighted least squares and maximum likelihood to fit semi-variogram models to datasets
  • Describe some commonly used semi-variogram models
FC-11 - Set Theory

Basic mathematical set theory is presented and illustrated with a few examples from GIS. The focus is on set theory first, with subsequent interpretation in some GIS contexts ranging from story maps to municipal planning to language use. The breadth of interpretation represents not only the foundational universality of set theory within the broad realm of GIS but is also reflective of set theory's fundamental role in mathematics and its numerous applications. Beyond the conventional, the reader is taken to see glimpses of set theory not commonly experienced in the world of GIS and asked to imagine where else they might apply. Initial broad exposure leaves room for the mind to grow into deep and rich fields flung far across the globe of academia. Direction toward such paths is offered within the text and in additional resources, all designed to broaden the horizons of the open-minded reader.

FC-15 - Shape

Shape is important in GI Science because the shape of a geographical entity can have far-reaching effects on significant characteristics of that entity. In geography we are mainly concerned with two-dimensional shapes such as the outlines of islands, lakes, and administrative areas, but three-dimensional shapes may become important, for example in the treatment of landforms. Since the attribute of shape has infinitely many degrees of freedom, there can be no single numerical measure such that closely similar shapes are assigned close numerical values. Therefore different shape descriptors have been proposed for different purposes. Although it is generally desirable for a shape descriptor to be scale invariant and rotation invariant, not all proposed descriptors satisfy both these requirements. Some methods by which a shape is described using a single number are described, followed by a discussion of moment-based approaches. It is often useful to represent a complex shape by means of a surrogate shape of simpler form which facilitates storage, manipulation, and comparison between shapes; some examples of commonly used shape surrogates are presented. Another important task is to compare different shapes to determine how similar they are. The article concludes with a discussion of a number of such measures of similarity.

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