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DM-77 - Spatial Joins

The measuring (or query) of the relationship between spatial features is of particular utility within a GIS. A spatial join combines represented geographic objects and their associated attributes based on a spatial relationship test (or predicate). The method of spatial join operation utilized depends on the relationship between the features represented and how those features are represented in the GIS.  Regardless of the software implementation, the spatial join operation results are predicated on a test condition such as adjacency, proximity, or topology comparison among represented geographic data. This topic discusses how spatial join operations can be utilized for different geographic problems.

DM-81 - Array Databases

Array Databases are a class of No-SQL databases that store, manage, and analyze data whose natural structures are arrays. With the growth of large volumes of spatial data (i.e., satellite imagery) there is a pressing need to have new ways to store and manipulate array data. Currently, there are several databases and platforms that have extended their initial architectures to support for multidimensional arrays. However, extending a platform to support a multidimensional array comes at a performance cost, when compared to Array Databases who specialize in the storage, retrieval, and processing of n-dimensional data.

DM-48 - Plane coordinate systems
  • Explain why plane coordinates are sometimes preferable to geographic coordinates
  • Identify the map projection(s) upon which UTM coordinate systems are based, and explain the relationship between the projection(s) and the coordinate system grid
  • Discuss the magnitude and cause of error associated with UTM coordinates
  • Differentiate the characteristics and uses of the UTM coordinate system from the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) and the World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF)
  • Explain what State Plane Coordinates system (SPC) eastings and northings represent
  • Associate SPC coordinates and zone specifications with corresponding positions on a U.S. map or globe
  • Identify the map projection(s) upon which SPC coordinate systems are based, and explain the relationship between the projection(s) and the coordinate system grids
  • Discuss the magnitude and cause of error associated with SPC coordinates
  • Recommend the most appropriate plane coordinate system for applications at different spatial extents and justify the recommendation
  • Critique the U.S. Geological Survey’s choice of UTM as the standard coordinate system for the U.S. National Map
  • Describe the characteristics of the “national grids” of countries other than the U.S.
  • Explain what Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) eastings and northings represent
  • Associate UTM coordinates and zone specifications with corresponding position on a world map or globe
DM-10 - Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) Models

A Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) is a way of storing continuous surfaces. It is vector based, and works in such a way that it connects known data points with straight lines to create triangles, often called facets. These facets are planes that have the same slope and aspect over the facet. Collectively, these hypothetical lines form a network covering the whole surface. TINs are efficient when storing heterogeneous surfaces, since homogenous areas are stored using few data points, while areas with more variability are stored in detail using a larger number of data points. In other words, a TIN can be more detailed where the surface is complex (high variation) by using smaller facets, and less detailed where the surface is more homogeneous by using larger facets. TINs also have a high modelling potential, e.g. in topography and hydrology. However, the unique way of storing data an a TIN often makes it difficult to combine with other spatial data formats. Instead, the TIN data would usually be converted to other suitable formats.

DM-20 - Entity-based Models

As we translate real world phenomena into data structures that we can store in a computer, we must determine the most appropriate spatial representation and how it relates to the characteristics of such a phenomenon. All spatial representations are derivatives of graph theory and should therefore be described in such terms. This then helps to understand the principles of low-level GIS operations. A constraint-driven approach allows the reader to evaluate implementations of the geo-relational principle in terms of the hierarchical level of mathematical space adopted.

DM-67 - NoSQL Databases

NoSQL databases are open-source, schema-less, horizontally scalable and high-performance databases. These characteristics make them very different from relational databases, the traditional choice for spatial data. The four types of data stores in NoSQL databases (key-value store, document store, column store, and graph store) contribute to significant flexibility for a range of applications. NoSQL databases are well suited to handle typical challenges of big data, including volume, variety, and velocity. For these reasons, they are increasingly adopted by private industries and used in research. They have gained tremendous popularity in the last decade due to their ability to manage unstructured data (e.g. social media data).

DM-44 - Earth's Shape, Sea Level, and the Geoid

C. F. Gauss set the modern definition of the shape of the Earth, being described as the shape the oceans would adopt if they were entirely unperturbed and, thus, placid—a surface now called the geoid.  This surface cannot be observed directly because the oceans have waves, tides, currents, and other perturbations. Nonetheless, the geoid is the ideal datum for heights, and the science of determining the location of the geoid for practical purposes is the topic of physical geodesy. The geoid is the central concept that ties together what the various kinds of height mean, how they are measured, and how they are inter-related.

DM-56 - Georegistration
  • Differentiate rectification and orthorectification
  • Identify and explain an equation used to perform image-to-map registration
  • Identify and explain an equation used to perform image-to-image registration
  • Use GIS software to transform a given dataset to a specified coordinate system, projection, and datum
  • Explain the role and selection criteria for “ground control points” (GCPs) in the georegistration of aerial imagery
DM-59 - Data warehouses
  • Differentiate between a data warehouse and a database
  • Describe the functions that gazetteers support
  • Differentiate the retrieval mechanisms of data warehouses and databases
  • Discuss the appropriate use of a data warehouse versus a database
DM-21 - Modeling three-dimensional (3-D) entities
  • Identify GIS application domains in which true 3-D models of natural phenomena are necessary
  • Illustrate the use of Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) to model landscapes in 3-D
  • Explain how octatrees are the 3-D extension of quadtrees
  • Explain how voxels and stack-unit maps that show the topography of a series of geologic layers might be considered 3-D extensions of field and vector representations respectively
  • Explain how 3-D models can be extended to additional dimensions
  • Explain the use of multi-patching to represent 3-D objects
  • Explain the difficulties in creating true 3-D objects in a vector or raster format
  • Differentiate between 21/2-D representations and true 3-D models

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